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"definition": "From the sources\nMetaphor (al-istiʿāra) is an Arabic rhetorical device where a word is used in place of another word with which it shares a quality or point of resemblance (wajh al-shabah), with one of the two terms of the underlying comparison omitted, and with a contextual indicator (al-qarīna) that blocks the literal meaning of the transferred word.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7]\nSome sources present Metaphor as rhetorically stronger than simile (al-tashbīh), because rather than merely asserting resemblance between two things, it can enact a claim of identity (iddiʿāʾ) that the compared thing has entered the genus of the thing it is compared to.[1][3][7]",
"linguisticOperation": "From the sources\nMetaphor consists of three components:[1][7][6]\n\nThe borrowed-from (al-mustaʿār minhu) — the source of the transferred word, equivalent to the mushabbah bihi (the likened) in simile.\nThe borrowed-to (al-mustaʿār lahu) — the target to which the word is transferred, equivalent to the mushabbah (the likened-to) in simile.\nThe borrowed word (al-mustaʿār) — the lexical item taken from the borrowed-from and applied to the borrowed-to.\n\nThe transfer is grounded in a shared quality or point of resemblance (wajh al-shabah, also called al-jāmiʿ) between the two terms.[7][3][6]\nOne of the two poles of the underlying simile is omitted from the surface of the utterance: either the mushabbah (likened-to) or the mushabbah bihi (likened) is absent.[2][4][5]\nA contextual indicator (al-qarīna) must be present to block the literal meaning of the transferred word and signal the figurative reading. This indicator may be verbal (al-qarīna al-maqāliyya) or situational (al-qarīna al-ḥāliyya).[1][7]\nFor example, in raʾaytu asadan (I saw a lion), the word lion is the borrowed word (mustaʿār); the lion is the borrowed-from (mustaʿār minhu); the brave man — absent from the utterance — is the borrowed-to (mustaʿār lahu); courage is the shared quality (jāmiʿ); and the context blocks the literal reading of lion.[1][7]",
"recognition": "From the sources\nMetaphor may be present when:\n\nA word is used in a context where its literal meaning is blocked by a verbal or situational indicator (al-qarīna).[1][7]\nThe blocked literal meaning and the intended figurative meaning share a recognisable point of resemblance (wajh al-shabah / al-jāmiʿ) that motivates the transfer.[7][3][6]\nOnly one of the two poles of the underlying simile is present in the utterance: either the mushabbah (likened-to) or the mushabbah bihi (likened) is absent.[2][4][5]\nEncyclopedia InterpretationDiagnostic testsThe following diagnostic tests aid identification:\n\nTest 1 — Is the literal meaning blocked? Ask whether the word can be read literally in its context. If the literal reading is fully plausible, the expression is probably not Metaphor.\nTest 2 — Is there a qarīna? Identify a word, phrase, or situational factor that forces a figurative reading. If none can be found, the expression may be literal.\nTest 3 — Is there a similarity? Determine whether the literal meaning and the intended meaning share a recognisable quality (wajh al-shabah). If no meaningful similarity can be identified, the expression is not Metaphor.\nTest 4 — Is one pole of the comparison omitted? Check whether only one of the two comparison terms appears in the utterance:\n\nIf only the borrowed-from (mushabbah bihi) appears (e.g. asad used for a person), the candidate is an explicit Metaphor (taṣrīḥiyya).\nIf the borrowed-to (mushabbah) remains with a concomitant of the omitted borrowed-from (e.g. roaring attributed to a person), the candidate is an implicit Metaphor (makniyya).\nIf both poles are explicitly stated without a particle of comparison (e.g. zaydun asadun, Zayd is a lion), most classical rhetoricians classify this as a tashbīh balīgh (compressed simile) rather than Metaphor, because the explicit naming of both terms prevents the full claim of identity (iddiʿāʾ) that characterises Metaphor.[7]\n\nTest 5 — Is there a metaphorical transfer? Confirm that a word is being used in place of another on the basis of similarity (mushābaha), with the literal meaning blocked by a qarīna — rather than being a literal description or a non-figurative extension of meaning.\nDecision ruleTo determine whether an expression is a Metaphor (al-istiʿāra), apply the following steps in order:\n1) Is the usage non-literal?\nAsk whether a word is being used in a way that conflicts with its literal meaning in the given context.\nIf the literal meaning is fully plausible, the expression is not a Metaphor. \n2) Is there a qarīna?\nIdentify a word, phrase, or situational factor (al-qarīna) that blocks the literal interpretation and forces a figurative reading.\nIf no such indicator is present, the expression may be literal rather than figurative. \n3) Is there an underlying similarity?\nDetermine whether the literal meaning and the intended meaning share a recognisable quality or point of resemblance (wajh al-shabah).\nIf no meaningful similarity can be identified, the expression is not a Metaphor. \n4) Is one pole of the comparison omitted?\nCheck whether only one side of an underlying comparison is expressed:\nIf only the borrowed-from (mushabbah bihi) appears (e.g. asad for a person), the Metaphor is explicit (taṣrīḥiyya).\nIf the borrowed-to (mushabbah) remains with a concomitant of the omitted borrowed-from (e.g. roaring), the Metaphor is implicit (makniyya).\nIf both poles are explicitly stated without a particle of comparison (e.g. zaydun asadun), the expression is treated as a tashbīh balīgh (compressed simile) in classical analysis, not as Metaphor, because the presence of both terms weakens the claim of identity.[7] \n5) Confirm metaphorical transfer.\nConfirm that a word is being used in place of another on the basis of similarity (mushābaha), with its literal meaning blocked by a qarīna, resulting in a figurative identification rather than a literal description.",
"diagnosticCommunicativeEnhancements": "From the sources\nGreater force than simile: Metaphor surpasses the effective simile in rhetorical power because it does not merely assert resemblance but enacts a claim of identity (iddiʿāʾ) between the two terms, producing a bolder and more striking effect.[1][3][7]\nIntensification (al-mubālagha): The identification of two unlike things carries greater emphasis than a hedged simile.[3][4]\nVividness: Abstract or cognitive qualities are rendered concrete and perceptible — capable of being felt, seen, or experienced — through their association with a familiar image.[1]\nPersonification and embodiment (al-tashkhīṣ, al-tajsīm): Metaphor can animate inanimate things and render abstract meanings as perceptible forms.[4][2]\nStrangeness and elevation (al-gharāba): The substitution of one term for another creates strangeness (gharāba), which can heighten rhetorical effect and strengthen the sensory and emotional force of the expression.[7]\nConcision: Simon (2011) reports that al-Jurjānī identifies increased conciseness as one of the purposes served by Metaphor, alongside intensity.[7]\n\nApplying the Recognition Framework\nThe information on this page can be used to evaluate whether this device is present in a candidate lexical item using the Specific Device Recognition part of the Universal Framework for Identifying Arabic Rhetorical Devices:\n\nUse the Definition, Mechanism, and Recognition sections of this page in Step 1.\nApply the substitution test in Step 2.\nConsider contextual indicators in Step 3.\nUse the Diagnostic Communicative Enhancements section of this page in Step 4.",
"differentFrom": "From the sources\nSIMILE: Simile (al-tashbīh): In simile, both the mushabbah (likened-to) and the mushabbah bihi (likened) are stated, and a particle of comparison (adāt al-tashbīh) typically marks the resemblance. In Metaphor, one of the two poles is omitted, and the communicator enacts a claim of identity (iddiʿāʾ) rather than merely asserting resemblance. The effective simile (tashbīh balīgh) — which omits the particle and the wajh al-shabah but retains both poles (e.g. zaydun asadun, Zayd is a lion) — is still classified by most classical rhetoricians as Simile rather than Metaphor, because the explicit naming of both terms prevents full identification.[7][2][4]\nTRANSFR: Relational Transfer (al-majāz): Metaphor falls within the broader category of majāz (trope / figurative use of language), but it is specifically the form of majāz whose motivating relationship (ʿalāqa) is similarity (mushābaha). Other forms of majāz rest on different relationships such as contiguity or part-for-whole.[7][4] In Metaphor, the relationship motivating the transfer is specifically one of similarity (mushābaha), which distinguishes Metaphor from other forms of Relational Transfer whose motivating relationships are different.[4][7]",
"researchApplications": "This definition of Metaphor used in the Encyclopedia of Arabic Rhetoric has been operationalised in the Arabic Metaphor Identification Procedure (AraMIP), a two-stage procedure for identifying and annotating Metaphor, Simile, and Implicit Reference in Arabic text.[10]",
"seeAlso": "Disambiguation page for Figurative Speech (‘ilm al-bayān)",
"notes": "The term istiʿāra literally means borrowing. The rhetorical term is explained through the analogy of borrowing: a word is taken from its original or conventional use and applied to another meaning on the basis of similarity.[1][3][4][7]\nThe English rendering metaphor is the standard translation used in Western scholarship on Arabic rhetoric in Abdul-Raof (2006), Heinrichs (1998), and Simon (2011).[1][11][7]\nThe subtypes taṣrīḥiyya and makniyya are rendered here as explicit and implicit, following Abdul-Raof’s English terminology.[1]\nThe subtype mujarrada is rendered here as stripped rather than naked. Abdul-Raof uses naked metaphor, but this encyclopedia uses stripped as a clearer English rendering of the Arabic sense of tajrīd.[1]\nThe term istiʿāra takhyīliyya is mentioned in connection with the implicit metaphor (makniyya) because the sources describe it as involving the attribution of something belonging to the omitted source domain to the retained target.[2][3][4][7]\nSome sources further classify Metaphor according to whether its two poles (mustaʿār minhu and mustaʿār lahu) and the shared quality (al-jāmiʿ) are sensory (maḥsūs) or rational (maʿqūl).[6]\nThe typology presented in here reflects the subtypes most consistently attested across the sources surveyed. Some larger reference works present considerably more subdivisions, organised according to different classificatory axes.[3]",
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"arabic": "جَاءَنَا بَحْرٌ يُنْفِقُ وَلَا يَخَافُ الْفَقْرَ.",
"english": "A sea came to us, spending freely and fearing no poverty.",
"explanation": "The word sea (mushabbah bihi, the likened) is stated; the generous man (mushabbah, the likened-to) is omitted. The verbs spending and fearing no poverty are contextual indicators (qarāʾin) that block the literal reading of sea.[1]"
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"arabic": "تَكَلَّمَ أَسَدٌ فَوْقَ الْمِنْبَرِ.",
"english": "A lion spoke from the pulpit.",
"explanation": "The word lion (mushabbah bihi) is stated; the courageous orator (mushabbah) is omitted. The phrase from the pulpit (fawqa al-minbar) acts as the qarīna, blocking the literal reading of lion and establishing the figurative transfer on the basis of shared courage."
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"arabic": "وَاخْفِضْ لَهُمَا جَنَاحَ الذُّلِّ مِنَ الرَّحْمَةِ.",
"english": "And lower to them the wing of humility out of mercy. (Qur'an 17:24)",
"explanation": "Humility (the mushabbah, likened-to) is retained; the bird (the mushabbah bihi, likened) is omitted, but its concomitant wing is attributed to humility, serving as the indicator of the suppressed comparison.[4][2]"
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"arabic": "مَدَّ الْمَوْتُ مَخَالِبَهُ إِلَى الْقَرْيَةِ.",
"english": "Death extended its claws towards the village.",
"explanation": "Death (mushabbah, likened-to) is retained; the beast of prey (mushabbah bihi, likened) is omitted, but its concomitant claws is attributed to death. The claws are an istiʿāra takhyīliyya — an imagined property of the suppressed source domain attributed to the retained target."
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"arabic": "أُولَٰئِكَ الَّذِينَ اشْتَرَوُا الضَّلَالَةَ بِالْهُدَىٰ فَمَا رَبِحَت تِّجَارَتُهُمْ.",
"english": "Those are the ones who have purchased error in exchange for guidance, so their transaction has brought no profit. (Qur'an 2:16)",
"explanation": "Purchasing (ishtaraw) is the metaphorical word; transaction (tijāra) and profit (rabiḥat) are additions that suit the borrowed-from domain (commerce), reinforcing and sustaining the metaphorical image. This is a murashshaḥa.[4][5]"
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"arabic": "رَأَيْتُ أَسَدًا يَخْطُبُ وَلَهُ مَخَالِبُ حَادَّة.",
"english": "I saw a lion giving a speech, and it had sharp claws.",
"explanation": "The word lion (mushabbah bihi) is stated; the orator (mushabbah) is omitted. Claws (makhālib) belongs to the domain of the lion (borrowed-from), reinforcing and sustaining the animal image. This makes the metaphor murashshaḥa."
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"arabic": "فَأَذَاقَهَا اللَّهُ لِبَاسَ الْجُوعِ وَالْخَوْفِ.",
"english": "So Allah made them taste the garment of hunger and fear. (Qur'an 16:112)",
"explanation": "Garment (libās) is the metaphorical word (mustaʿār). The additions hunger and fear suit the human target (mushabbah, the borrowed-to), grounding the metaphor in the human experience being described rather than reinforcing the clothing image. This makes the metaphor mujarrada.[4][5]"
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"arabic": "دَخَلَ أَسَدٌ الِاجْتِمَاعَ وَهُوَ يَحْمِلُ مَلَفَّاتِهِ.",
"english": "A lion entered the meeting, carrying his files.",
"explanation": "Lion (mushabbah bihi) is stated; the manager (mushabbah) is omitted. Carrying his files belongs to the domain of the manager (borrowed-to), grounding the image in the human target rather than reinforcing the lion image. This makes the metaphor mujarrada."
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"arabic": "يَنْقُضُونَ عَهْدَ اللَّهِ.",
"english": "They break the covenant of God. (Qur'an 2:27)",
"explanation": "Break (yanquḍūna) transfers the image of physically breaking an object to the moral act of violating a covenant. No additions suit either the physical object (borrowed-from) or the moral act (borrowed-to); the metaphor stands unaugmented. This is a muṭlaqa.[5]"
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"arabic": "رَأَيْتُ أَسَدًا يَخْطُبُ.",
"english": "I saw a lion giving a speech.",
"explanation": "Lion (mushabbah bihi) is stated; the orator (mushabbah) is omitted. No additions favour either the lion domain or the human domain; the metaphor stands without reinforcement or grounding. This is a muṭlaqa."
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"id": "LW453CJ",
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"arabic": "لَا يُلْدَغُ الْمُؤْمِنُ مِنْ جُحْرٍ مَرَّتَيْن.",
"english": "A believer is not stung from the same hole twice. (Hadith, reported in Bukhari and Muslim)",
"explanation": "The entire proposition — a creature avoiding a source of harm it has already experienced — is applied figuratively to any situation where a person refuses to be deceived or harmed by the same means twice. The resemblance is relational, not reducible to a single shared quality between two words.[2]"
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"exampleOfName": "Metaphor",
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"arabic": "أَلَمْ تَجْعَلْنِي فِي يَمِينِكَ؟ فَلَا تَجْعَلْنِي بَعْدَ ذَلِكَ فِي شِمَالِكَ!",
"english": "Had you not placed me into your right hand? So do not place me after that into your left!",
"explanation": "The entire figurative scenario — of being held in the right hand (honour) versus the left hand (diminishment) — is applied to an unstated situation of favour and disfavour. The addressee must infer the intended application; only the vehicle is stated. Heinrichs (1998) identifies this as the dominant and more common form of tamthīl, where the subject of comparison is suppressed and the result is a sentence metaphor.[8]"
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"arabic": "مَنْ بَنَى عَلَى شَفَا جُرُفٍ هَارٍ فَبِنَاؤُهُ مُنْهَار.",
"english": "Whoever builds on the edge of a crumbling bank — his building will collapse.",
"explanation": "The entire scene of a structure built on unstable ground is applied figuratively to any endeavour built on weak or corrupt foundations. The resemblance is structural and relational, operating across the whole proposition rather than through a single transferred word."
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"arabic": "دَخَلَ الْمُدِيرُ الِاجْتِمَاعَ.",
"english": "The manager entered the meeting.",
"explanation": "This sentence is literal and contains no metaphor. It serves as a neutral baseline from which the different metaphor types can be generated by systematic transformation."
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