METAPH: Metaphor

    From The Encyclopedia of Arabic Rhetoric

    الاستعارة
    METAPH: Metaphor
    CategoryFigurative Speech
    (ʿilm al-bayān)
    SubcategoryConceptual Transfer
    Built upon9 sources
      
    Annotation Unit
    ARDT CodeMETAPH
    Level1 (Rhetorical device)
       ↳ Has 2 subtypes
         ↳ Has 2 sub-subtypes
      
    Included in Taxonomy
    ARDTv0.1.1
    v0.1.0
      
    External Identifiers
    BALAGHAScoreB-2
    BalaghaBaseQ57
    OpenAlexW4415329821
      
    Applications
    BalaghaCorpusSee examples
     
    Cite this page
    🔗 Live DOI10.64393/balagha.Q57
     
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    Definition

    Metaphor (al-istiʿāra) is an Arabic rhetorical device in which an expression or relational configuration is transferred from one meaning or situation to another on the basis of a shared quality or point of resemblance (wajh al-shabah).

    In Single-Expression Metaphor, one of the two poles of the underlying comparison is omitted, and a contextual indicator (al-qarīna) blocks the conventional interpretation of the transferred expression. In Analogical Metaphor, an entire proposition or relational configuration is applied to another unstated situation and the wider context signals that a whole proposition or relational configuration is being applied to another unstated situation.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7]

    Linguistic Operations

    • In lexical Metaphor, the metaphorical transfer can be analysed through three components:[1][7][6]
      • The borrowed-from (al-mustaʿār minhu) — the source of the transferred word, equivalent to the mushabbah bihi (the likened-to) in simile.
      • The borrowed-to (al-mustaʿār lahu) — the target to which the word is transferred, equivalent to the mushabbah (the likened) in simile.
      • The borrowed word (al-mustaʿār) — the lexical item taken from the borrowed-from and applied to the borrowed-to.
    • The metaphorical transfer is grounded in resemblance (al-mushābaha). In lexical Metaphor, this is expressed through a shared quality or point of resemblance (wajh al-shabah, also called al-jāmiʿ) between the source and target; in Analogical Metaphor, the resemblance may instead consist in a relation or configuration shared by two situations.[7][3][6][8]
    • In lexical Metaphor, one of the two poles of the underlying comparison is omitted from the surface of the utterance. In Explicit Metaphor (METAPH-EX), the mushabbah (target) is suppressed and the mushabbah bihi (source) is expressed; in Implicit Metaphor (METAPH-IM), the mushabbah remains while the mushabbah bihi is suppressed and indicated through one of its associated characteristics, actions, or concomitants.[2][4][5][7]
    • In Analogical Metaphor (METAPH-AN), the transferred unit is not a single lexical item but a whole proposition, situation, or relational configuration. An expression associated with one situation is applied to another unstated situation because the two share a corresponding relational pattern.[4][2][6][7][8][9]
    • In lexical Metaphor, a contextual indicator (al-qarīna) blocks the conventional interpretation of the transferred expression and signals the figurative reading. The indicator may be verbal (al-qarīna al-maqāliyya) or situational (al-qarīna al-ḥāliyya). In Analogical Metaphor, the individual words may retain their conventional meanings; the wider discourse or situation instead signals that the whole proposition is being applied figuratively to another case.[1][7]

    For example, in raʾaytu asadan (I saw a lion), the word lion is the borrowed word (mustaʿār); the lion is the borrowed-from (mustaʿār minhu); the brave man — absent from the utterance — is the borrowed-to (mustaʿār lahu); courage is the shared quality (jāmiʿ); and the context blocks the literal reading of lion.[1][7]

    Recognition

    Metaphor may be present when:

    • An expression or proposition is used beyond its ordinary application, with the intended figurative application recoverable from linguistic or contextual evidence.[1][7]
    • The literal or original meaning and the intended figurative application are connected by resemblance (mushābaha), whether through a shared quality or through a wider relational correspondence.[7][3][6]
    • In lexical Metaphor, one pole of the underlying comparison is suppressed; in Analogical Metaphor, a whole proposition or relational configuration is applied to another unstated situation.[2][4][7][8]

    Diagnostic tests

    The following diagnostic tests aid identification:

    • Test 1 — Is the literal meaning blocked? Ask whether the word can be read literally in its context. If the literal reading is fully plausible, the expression is probably not Metaphor.
    • Test 2 — Is there a qarīna? Identify a word, phrase, or situational factor that forces a figurative reading. If none can be found, the expression may be literal.
    • Test 3 — Is there a similarity? Determine whether the literal meaning and the intended meaning share a recognisable quality (wajh al-shabah). If no meaningful similarity can be identified, the expression is not Metaphor.
    • Test 4 — What is the scope of the transfer? Ask whether the metaphorical correspondence operates through a whole proposition or relational situation, or through a lexical metaphorical expression.
      • If a whole proposition or relational configuration is transferred to another unstated situation, the candidate is an Analogical Metaphor (METAPH-AN).
      • If the transfer is lexical, continue to identify which pole is expressed.
    • Test 5 — Which pole is expressed?
      • If the source (mushabbah bihi / mustaʿār minhu) is expressed and the target is suppressed, the candidate is an Explicit Metaphor (METAPH-EX).
      • If the target (mushabbah / mustaʿār lahu) is expressed while the source is suppressed and signalled by a source-associated property, action, or concomitant, the candidate is an Implicit Metaphor (METAPH-IM).
      • If both poles are explicitly stated, the expression is ordinarily analysed as Simile rather than Metaphor in the canonical system.[7]
    • Test 6 — Is there metaphorical transfer? Confirm that the non-literal use is motivated by similarity rather than by another semantic relationship.

    Decision rule

    To determine whether an expression is a Metaphor (al-istiʿāra), apply the following steps in order:

    1) Is the usage non-literal?

    • Ask whether an expression or proposition is being used beyond its ordinary literal or situational application in the given context.
    • If the literal meaning is fully plausible, the expression is not a Metaphor.

     

    2) Is there a qarīna?

    • Identify a word, phrase, or situational factor (al-qarīna) that blocks the literal interpretation and forces a figurative reading.
    • If no such indicator is present, the expression may be literal rather than figurative.

     

    3) Is there an underlying similarity?

    • Determine whether the literal meaning and the intended meaning share a recognisable quality or point of resemblance (wajh al-shabah).
    • If no meaningful similarity can be identified, the expression is not a Metaphor.

     

    4) What is the scope of the metaphorical transfer?

    • If an entire proposition, situation, or relational configuration is applied to another unstated situation on the basis of resemblance, the expression is an Analogical Metaphor (METAPH-AN).
    • If the transfer is carried by a lexical metaphorical expression rather than a whole relational configuration, continue to Step 5.

     

    5) Which pole of the underlying comparison is expressed?

    • If the metaphorical source (mushabbah bihi / mustaʿār minhu) is expressed while the intended target (mushabbah / mustaʿār lahu) is suppressed, the expression is an Explicit Metaphor (METAPH-EX).
    • If the target (mushabbah / mustaʿār lahu) is expressed while the metaphorical source (mushabbah bihi / mustaʿār minhu) is suppressed and indicated by a source-associated characteristic, action, or concomitant, the expression is an Implicit Metaphor (METAPH-IM).
    • If both poles are explicitly stated without a comparison particle (e.g. zaydun asadun), the expression is treated as a tashbīh balīgh (Effective Simile) in the canonical analysis rather than Metaphor.[7]

     

    6) Confirm metaphorical transfer.

    • Confirm that the expression is being used figuratively on the basis of similarity (mushābaha), with the literal interpretation blocked by a qarīna.

    Communicative Enhancements

    • Greater force than simile: Metaphor surpasses the effective simile in rhetorical power because it does not merely assert resemblance between two things but enacts a claim of identity (iddiʿāʾ) between the two terms, suggesting that the compared thing has entered the genus of the thing it is compared to. This can produce a bolder and more striking effect.[1][3][7]
    • Intensification (al-mubālagha): The identification of two unlike things carries greater emphasis than a hedged simile.[3][4]
    • Vividness: Abstract or cognitive qualities are rendered concrete and perceptible — capable of being felt, seen, or experienced — through their association with a familiar image.[1]
    • Personification and embodiment (al-tashkhīṣ, al-tajsīm): Metaphor can animate inanimate things and render abstract meanings as perceptible forms.[4][2]
    • Strangeness and elevation (al-gharāba): The substitution of one term for another creates strangeness (gharāba), which can heighten rhetorical effect and strengthen the sensory and emotional force of the expression.[7]
    • Concision: Simon (2011) reports that al-Jurjānī identifies increased conciseness as one of the purposes served by Metaphor, alongside intensity.[7]

    Applying the Recognition Framework

    The information on this page can be used to evaluate whether this device is present in a candidate lexical item using the Specific Device Recognition part of the Universal Framework for Identifying Arabic Rhetorical Devices:

    • Use the Definition, Mechanism, and Recognition sections of this page in Step 1.
    • Apply the substitution test in Step 2.
    • Consider contextual indicators in Step 3.
    • Use the Diagnostic Communicative Enhancements section of this page in Step 4.

    Subtypes of Metaphor

    Classical Arabic rhetoric distinguishes numerous types of Metaphor according to different structural, morphological, semantic, and rhetorical considerations.[3][4][6][7]

    For identification and annotation, the Encyclopedia foregrounds three forms according to how the metaphorical transfer is linguistically realised: Explicit Metaphor and Implicit Metaphor operate through a lexical metaphorical expression, while Analogical Metaphor transfers a whole proposition or relational configuration. Other source-attested classifications provide additional ways of describing an identified Metaphor and may overlap with these Annotation Units.

    METAPH-SNE: Single-Expression Metaphor (al-istiʿāra al-mufrada)

    Annotation Unit
    ARDTMETAPH-SNE
    Level2 (Subtype)
       ↳ Has 2 sub-subtypes
    BalaghaBaseQ617
    Official Arabic nameal-istiʿāra al-mufrada[10]

    A categorisation of Metaphor according to which pole of the underlying comparison is linguistically expressed.

    METAPH-EXP: Explicit Metaphor (al-istiʿāra al-taṣrīḥiyya)

    Annotation Unit
    ARDTMETAPH-EXP
    Level3 (Sub-subtype)
    BalaghaBaseQ614
    Official Arabic nameal-istiʿāra al-taṣrīḥiyya[11]

    A form of Metaphor in which the metaphorical source (mushabbah bihi / mustaʿār minhu) is expressed while the intended target (mushabbah / mustaʿār lahu) is suppressed.[2][4][5][7] The name of the borrowed-from is placed in a context belonging to the borrowed-to, and the qarīna signals the figurative reading.

    جَاءَنَا بَحْرٌ يُنْفِقُ وَلَا يَخَافُ الْفَقْرَ.

    A sea came to us, spending freely and fearing no poverty.

    Explanation
    The word sea (mushabbah bihi, the likened-to) is stated; the generous man (mushabbah, the likened) is omitted. The verbs spending and fearing no poverty are contextual indicators (qarāʾin) that block the literal reading of sea.[1]

    تَكَلَّمَ أَسَدٌ فَوْقَ الْمِنْبَرِ.

    A lion spoke from the pulpit.

    Explanation
    The word lion (mushabbah bihi) is stated; the courageous orator (mushabbah) is omitted. The phrase from the pulpit (fawqa al-minbar) acts as the qarīna, blocking the literal reading of lion and establishing the figurative transfer on the basis of shared courage.

    METAPH-IMT: Implicit Metaphor (al-istiʿāra al-makniyya)

    Annotation Unit
    ARDTMETAPH-IMT
    Level3 (Sub-subtype)
    BalaghaBaseQ615
    Official Arabic nameal-istiʿāra al-makniyya[11]

    A form of Metaphor in which the target (mushabbah / mustaʿār lahu) is expressed while the metaphorical source (mushabbah bihi / mustaʿār minhu) is suppressed and indicated by attributing to the target a characteristic, action, or concomitant associated with that source.[2][4][5][3][7]

    In the canonical analysis, the suppressed comparison itself is the implicit metaphor (al-istiʿāra al-makniyya), while the attribution to the retained target of something associated with the suppressed source is termed al-istiʿāra al-takhyīliyya. The two describe complementary aspects of the same construction rather than competing annotation types.[5][7][12]

    وَاخْفِضْ لَهُمَا جَنَاحَ الذُّلِّ مِنَ الرَّحْمَةِ.

    And lower to them the wing of humility out of mercy. (Qur'an 17:24)

    Explanation
    Humility (the mushabbah, likened) is retained; the bird (the mushabbah bihi, likened-to) is omitted, but its concomitant wing is attributed to humility, serving as the indicator of the suppressed comparison.[4][2]

    مَدَّ الْمَوْتُ مَخَالِبَهُ إِلَى الْقَرْيَةِ.

    Death extended its claws towards the village.

    Explanation
    Death (mushabbah, target) is retained; the beast of prey (mushabbah bihi, source) is suppressed, but its concomitant claws is attributed to death. The suppressed comparison of death to a beast of prey is the makniyya; the attribution of claws to death is the associated takhyīliyya.

    METAPH-ANM: Analogical Metaphor (al-istiʿāra al-tamthīliyya)

    Annotation Unit
    ARDTMETAPH-ANM
    Level2 (Subtype)
    BalaghaBaseQ616
    Official Arabic nameal-istiʿāra al-tamthīliyya[10]

    A form of Metaphor in which an entire proposition, situation, or relational configuration is applied to another unstated situation on the basis of structural or relational resemblance.[3][4][2][1][7][8][9]

    Abdul-Raof (2006) notes that unlike other metaphor types, the analogical metaphor does not rely on an explicit lexical clue; the addressee infers the figurative application through the cognitive faculty and contextual understanding.[1]

    The term tamthīl is used in the classical tradition to refer to what this encyclopedia treats as Analogical Metaphor (al-istiʿāra al-tamthīliyya). Heinrichs (1998) notes that when the subject of comparison in a tamthīl is suppressed, the result is a sentence metaphor — and that this suppressed form is actually the more common use of the term tamthīl in classical sources.[8][9] Heinrichs further notes that the analogy is sometimes deliberately weak, exaggerated, or invalid — producing a mock analogy (al-tamthīl al-mukhtalaʿ) in which the insinuated point of resemblance does not genuinely hold.[8]

    لَا يُلْدَغُ الْمُؤْمِنُ مِنْ جُحْرٍ مَرَّتَيْن.

    A believer is not stung from the same hole twice. (Hadith, reported in Bukhari and Muslim)

    Explanation
    The entire proposition — a creature avoiding a source of harm it has already experienced — is applied figuratively to any situation where a person refuses to be deceived or harmed by the same means twice. The resemblance is relational, not reducible to a single shared quality between two words.[2]

    أَلَمْ تَجْعَلْنِي فِي يَمِينِكَ؟ فَلَا تَجْعَلْنِي بَعْدَ ذَلِكَ فِي شِمَالِكَ!

    Had you not placed me into your right hand? So do not place me after that into your left!

    — Ibn Mayyāda

    Explanation
    The entire figurative scenario — of being held in the right hand (honour) versus the left hand (diminishment) — is applied to an unstated situation of favour and disfavour. The addressee must infer the intended application; only the vehicle is stated. Heinrichs (1998) identifies this as the dominant and more common form of tamthīl, where the subject of comparison is suppressed and the result is a sentence metaphor.[8]

    مَنْ بَنَى عَلَى شَفَا جُرُفٍ هَارٍ فَبِنَاؤُهُ مُنْهَار.

    Whoever builds on the edge of a crumbling bank — his building will collapse.

    Explanation
    The entire scene of a structure built on unstable ground is applied figuratively to any endeavour built on weak or corrupt foundations. The resemblance is structural and relational, operating across the whole proposition rather than through a single transferred word.

    Comparison of of Metaphor Types

    The following comparison uses a single controlled scenario to show how the linguistic realisation of Metaphor changes across the three Annotation Units while the underlying metaphorical relationship remains comparable. The examples are an editorial pedagogical aid rather than a classical taxonomic scheme.

    Form Arabic Example English Gloss Scope Identification point
    Baseline (literal)

    دَخَلَ الْمُدِيرُ الِاجْتِمَاعَ.

    		 The manager entered the meeting. Literal proposition No metaphorical transfer is present.
    Explicit Metaphor (METAPH-EX)

    دَخَلَ الْأَسَدُ الِاجْتِمَاعَ.

    		 The lion entered the meeting. Lexical metaphor The metaphorical source (lion) is expressed while the intended target (manager) is suppressed.
    Implicit Metaphor (METAPH-IM)

    دَخَلَ الْمُدِيرُ الِاجْتِمَاعَ وَزَأَرَ فِي الْحُضُور.

    		 The manager entered the meeting and roared at those present. Lexical metaphor The target (manager) is expressed while the metaphorical source (lion) is suppressed and indicated through the source-associated action roared.
    Analogical Metaphor (METAPH-AN)

    إِذَا حَضَرَ الْأَسَدُ صَمَتَتِ الْغَابَة.

    		 When the lion is present, the forest falls silent. Propositional / relational An entire relational scenario — authority causing those around it to fall silent — is applied to another unstated situation.

    Additional Types of Metaphor

    Classical Arabic rhetorical sources classify Metaphor according to several additional structural, morphological, semantic, and contextual considerations.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7]

    The following distinctions provide additional ways of describing an identified Metaphor, but are not foregrounded as annotation units in this Encyclopedia because they do not materially alter identification of the underlying metaphorical transfer. They may overlap with the Annotation Units described above.

    Classification Arabic Example English Gloss Analytical significance
    Enhanced metaphor (al-istiʿāra al-murashshaḥa)

    أُولَٰئِكَ الَّذِينَ اشْتَرَوُا الضَّلَالَةَ بِالْهُدَىٰ فَمَا رَبِحَت تِّجَارَتُهُمْ.

    		 Those are the ones who have purchased error in exchange for guidance, so their transaction has brought no profit. (Qur'an 2:16)[4][5] Material appropriate to the mushabbah bihi / borrowed-from is added after the metaphor has been established, reinforcing the source-domain image.[1][2][4][5]

    رَأَيْتُ أَسَدًا يَخْطُبُ وَلَهُ مَخَالِبُ حَادَّة.

    		 I saw a lion giving a speech, and it had sharp claws.
    Stripped metaphor (al-istiʿāra al-mujarrada)

    فَأَذَاقَهَا اللَّهُ لِبَاسَ الْجُوعِ وَالْخَوْفِ.

    		 So Allah made them taste the garment of hunger and fear. (Qur'an 16:112)[4][5] Material appropriate to the mushabbah / borrowed-to is added after the metaphor has been established, grounding the expression in the target domain.[1][2][4][5]

    دَخَلَ أَسَدٌ الِاجْتِمَاعَ وَهُوَ يَحْمِلُ مَلَفَّاتِهِ.

    		 A lion entered the meeting, carrying his files.
    Absolute metaphor (al-istiʿāra al-muṭlaqa)

    يَنْقُضُونَ عَهْدَ اللَّهِ.

    		 They break the covenant of God. (Qur'an 2:27)[5] No additional material is present that exclusively suits either the borrowed-from or the borrowed-to; some later sources also apply the term when both kinds of addition occur.[2][4][5][7]

    رَأَيْتُ أَسَدًا يَخْطُبُ.

    		 I saw a lion giving a speech.

    Different From

    • SIMILE: Simile (al-tashbīh): Both devices are based on resemblance, but Simile retains two distinct comparison poles, whether they are overtly expressed or analytically recoverable. In lexical Metaphor, one of the two poles is suppressed: Explicit Metaphor (METAPH-EX) expresses the metaphorical source while suppressing the target, whereas Implicit Metaphor (METAPH-IM) retains the target while suppressing and indirectly signalling the source. In Analogical Metaphor (METAPH-AN), an entire proposition or relational configuration is applied to another unstated situation rather than presenting two recoverable comparison poles. The Effective Simile (tashbīh balīgh) may superficially resemble lexical Metaphor because it omits the comparison particle and shared feature, but both comparison poles remain expressed.[7][2][4][8][9]
    • TRANSFR: Relational Transfer (al-majāz): Metaphor falls within the broader category of majāz (trope / figurative use of language), but it is specifically the form of majāz whose motivating relationship (ʿalāqa) is similarity (mushābaha). Other forms of majāz rest on different relationships such as contiguity or part-for-whole.[7][4] In Metaphor, the relationship motivating the transfer is specifically one of similarity (mushābaha), which distinguishes Metaphor from other forms of Relational Transfer whose motivating relationships are different.[4][7]

    Research Applications of Metaphor

    See Also

    Notes

    • The term istiʿāra literally means borrowing. The rhetorical term is explained through the analogy of borrowing: a word is taken from its original or conventional use and applied to another meaning on the basis of similarity.[1][3][4][7]
    • The English rendering metaphor is the standard translation used in Western scholarship on Arabic rhetoric in Abdul-Raof (2006), Heinrichs (1998), and Simon (2011).[1][14][7]
    • The subtypes taṣrīḥiyya and makniyya are rendered here as explicit and implicit, following Abdul-Raof's English terminology.[1]
    • The subtype mujarrada is rendered here as stripped rather than naked. Abdul-Raof uses naked metaphor, but this encyclopedia uses stripped as a clearer English rendering of the Arabic sense of tajrīd.[1]
    • The term istiʿāra takhyīliyya is retained here as part of the classical analysis of Implicit Metaphor rather than as a separate Annotation Unit. In the canonical account, makniyya describes the suppressed comparison, while takhyīliyya describes the attribution to the retained target of a characteristic associated with the suppressed source; the two are therefore complementary rather than competing classifications.[5][7][12]
    • Some sources further classify Metaphor according to whether its two poles (mustaʿār minhu and mustaʿār lahu) and the shared quality (al-jāmiʿ) are sensory (maḥsūs) or rational (maʿqūl).[6]
    • Classical sources classify Metaphor according to multiple intersecting criteria. For identification and annotation, this Encyclopedia foregrounds Explicit Metaphor (METAPH-EX), Implicit Metaphor (METAPH-IM), and Analogical Metaphor (METAPH-AN) as Annotation Units. Other source-attested distinctions are retained selectively where they aid analysis, but are not treated as competing Annotation Units.[3][4][6][7]

    References

    1. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Hussein Abdul-Raof, Arabic Rhetoric: A Pragmatic Analysis (Oxford: Routledge, 2006), 218–225, ISBN 9780415386098. DOI: 10.4324/9780203965399
    2. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Ayman Amin Abd Al-Ghani, Al-Kāfī fī al-Balāgha: Al-Bayān, wa al-Badiʿ wa al-Maʿānī (Cairo: Dār al-Tawfīqiyya lil-Turāth, 2011), 67–86.
    3. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k Inʿam Fawwal ʿAkkawi, al-Muʿjam al-Mufassal fi ʿUlum al-Balagha: al-Badiʿ wa-l-Bayan wa-l-Maʿani (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyya, 1996), 90–117.
    4. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ʿAtīq, ʿIlm al-Bayān (Cairo: Dār al-Āfāq al-ʿArabiyya, 2006), 115–138, ISBN 977344077X.
    5. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Ḥafnī Nāṣif, Muḥammad Diyāb, Sultan Muḥammad and Muṣṭafā Ṭammām, Durūs al-Balāgha (Beirut: Dār Ibn Ḥazm, 2012), 94–97, ISBN 9786144162798.
    6. ↑ a b c d e f g h i Faḍl Ḥasan ʿAbbās, Al-Balāgha: Funūnuhā wa-Afnānuhā - ʿIlm al-Bayān wa-al-Badīʿ (Amman: Dār al-Furqān lil-Nashr wa-al-Tawzīʿ, 2007), 163-215.
    7. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac Udo Simon, ‘Istiʿāra’, in Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics Online, ed. Lutz Edzard and Rudolf Erik de Jong (Leiden: Brill, 2011).
    8. ↑ a b c d e f g h W. P. Heinrichs, ‘Rhetorical Figures’, in Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature, ed. Julie Scott Meisami and Paul Starkey (London: Routledge, 1998), 661, ISBN 0415068088. DOI: 10.4324/9780203020425
    9. ↑ a b c d Inʿam Fawwal ʿAkkawi, al-Muʿjam al-Mufassal fi ʿUlum al-Balagha: al-Badiʿ wa-l-Bayan wa-l-Maʿani (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyya, 1996), 424.
    10. ↑ a b ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ʿAtīq, ʿIlm al-Bayān (Cairo: Dār al-Āfāq al-ʿArabiyya, 2006), 132, ISBN 977344077X.
    11. ↑ a b ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ʿAtīq, ʿIlm al-Bayān (Cairo: Dār al-Āfāq al-ʿArabiyya, 2006), 121, ISBN 977344077X.
    12. ↑ a b Pierre Cachia, The Arch Rhetorician: Or The Schemer’s Skimmer: A Handbook of Late Arabic Badīʻ Drawn from ʻAbd al-Ghanī an-Nābulsī’s Nafaḥāt al-Azhār ʻala Nasamāt al-Asḥār, Studies in Arabic Language and Literature 3 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998), pp. 88-89; §122, ISBN 9783447040327.
    13. ↑ Mandar Marathe, Manar Ali, Sara Nabhani, Raia Abu Ahmad, Ibrahim Baroud, Omar Abdelmomen Amin Hassan, ‘AraMIP: Extending MIPVU Towards Metaphor Identification in Arabic’, Forthcoming in Proceedings of The Fourth Arabic Natural Language Processing Conference (ArabicNLP 2026).
    14. ↑ W. P. Heinrichs, ‘Metaphor’, in Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature, ed. Julie Scott Meisami and Paul Starkey (London: Routledge, 1998), 522–524, ISBN 0415068088.



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