PARONOM: Paronomasia

    From The Encyclopedia of Arabic Rhetoric

    الجناس، التجنيس
    PARONOM: Paronomasia
    CategoryLinguistic Embellishments
    (‘ilm al-badī‘)
    SubcategoryWordplay & Phonetic Styling
    Built upon10 sources
      
    Annotation Unit
    ARDT CodePARONOM
    Level1
      
    Included in Taxonomy
    ARDTv0.1.1
    v0.1.0
      
    External Identifiers
    BALAGHAScoreCC-3
    BalaghaBaseQ66
    OpenAlexW4415357191
      
    Cite this page
    🔗 Live DOI10.64393/balagha.Q66
     
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    Definition

    Paronomasia (al-jinās) is an Arabic rhetorical device involving the occurrence or suggestion of two words that are similar or identical in wording (lafẓ) but different in meaning.[1][2][3][4][5][6] In the later rhetorical tradition, the two components are ordinarily treated as distinct lexical occurrences with distinct meanings; mere lexical polysemy on its own is generally not treated as paronomasia.[7]

    Linguistic Operations

    • The device consists of two components, each of which is a word or expression.[1][2]
    • For complete paronomasia, the two components agree in all four of the following properties: the type of their letters, their number, their vowelisation and consonant-pointing (hayʾāt), and their order.[2][1][5][8]
    • Despite this formal similarity, the two components differ in meaning.[1][2][3]
    • The degree of agreement across these four properties determines the subtype: complete agreement across all four produces al-tāmm, while disagreement in one or more produces the various incomplete subtypes.[1][2]

    Recognition

    Paronomasia may be present when:

    • Two words in close proximity are identical or near-identical in their letters but carry different meanings.[1][2]
    • The similarity between the two words can be analysed along one or more of the four properties: letter type, letter number, vowelisation, and letter order.[2][1]

    Diagnostic Communicative Enhancements

    • Paronomasia gives speech a musical quality by creating a rhythmic balance between the two components, while simultaneously engaging the mind in distinguishing between their meanings.[1]
    • The device produces a pleasing melodic effect in an expression that is consistent with its meaning.[1]
    • It draws the listener toward the speech, since the form appears to repeat while the meaning differs, producing a sense of surprise and wonder.[2]
    • It is considered among the most popular rhetorical figures in Arabic.[3][4]
    • It is most effective when it arises naturally rather than through forced construction, since artificial paronomasia weakens the expression and exposes the speaker to ridicule.[2][7][9]
    • Forced paronomasia is not merely less effective but actively defective: prioritising verbal form over meaning displaces the word from its natural purpose, and opens the speech to censure and ridicule.[9][7]

    Applying the Recognition Framework

    The information on this page can be used to evaluate whether this device is present in a candidate lexical item using the Specific Device Recognition part of the Universal Framework for Identifying Arabic Rhetorical Devices:

    • Use the Definition, Mechanism, and Recognition sections of this page in Step 1.
    • Apply the substitution test in Step 2.
    • Consider contextual indicators in Step 3.
    • Use the Diagnostic Communicative Enhancements section of this page in Step 4.

    Types of Paronomasia

    Type A: Complete Paronomasia (al-jinās al-tāmm)

    Historical sources use numerous overlapping systems for subdividing paronomasia, with some recognising many more named subtypes than are represented here.[10] For operational identification and annotation, this encyclopedia prioritises analytical relevance over reproducing every named historical distinction. It retains distinctions that identify a sufficiently distinct formal or semantic mechanism and are useful for rhetorical analysis, while generally not separately encoding intermediate taxonomic categories, positional variants, unmarked or default cases, or finer configurations already captured by a broader operational type.

    Complete Paronomasia occurs when the two components agree in all four properties — letter type, letter number, vowelisation, and letter order — while differing in meaning.[2][1][8]

    A1. Same-category (al-muthāl)

    The two components belong to the same grammatical category, such as two nouns, two verbs, or two particles.[2][11]

    وَيَوْمَ تَقُومُ السَّاعَةُ يُقْسِمُ الْمُجْرِمُونَ مَا لَبِثُوا غَيْرَ سَاعَةٍ

    Quran 30:55
    "And on the Day the Hour appears, the criminals will swear they had remained but an hour"

    Explanation
    The word al-sāʿa appears twice. The first occurrence means the Day of Judgement; the second means a unit of time. Both are nouns, making this an instance of al-muthāl.[2][1][8]

    لَمْ نَلْقَ غَيْرَكَ إِنْسَاناً يُلَاذُ بِهِ — فَلَا بَرِحْتَ لِعَيْنِ الدَّهْرِ إِنْسَانَا

    "We have found none but you, a human being to seek refuge with — may you remain forever the pupil of time's eye"

    Explanation
    insānan in the first hemistich means "a human being"; insānā in the second means "the pupil of the eye" (insān al-ʿayn, the reflection of a person seen in another's eye). Both are nouns and the wording is identical while the meanings differ, making this an instance of al-mutamāthil.[5]

    سَأَلَ القَاضِي عَنِ العَيْنِ، فَقَالَ الشَّاهِدُ: رَأَيْتُ العَيْنَ عِنْدَ النَّهْرِ

    "The judge asked about the spy, and the witness said: I saw the spring by the river"

    Explanation
    al-ʿayn appears twice. The first occurrence means "spy"; the second means "spring" or "water-source." Both are nouns and the wording is identical while the meanings differ, making this an instance of al-muthāl.

    A2. Cross-category (al-mustawfī)

    The two components belong to different grammatical categories, such as one being a verb and the other a noun.[2][12]

    مَا مَاتَ مِنْ كَرَمِ الزَّمَانِ فَإِنَّهُ يَحْيَا لَدَى يَحْيَى بْنِ عَبْدِ اللَّهِ

    "What dies through the meanness of time lives again with Yaḥyā ibn ʿAbdallāh"

    Explanation
    The first yaḥyā is a present-tense verb meaning "lives"; the second Yaḥyā is a proper noun, the name of the person being praised. The two components are identical in all four properties but belong to different grammatical categories, making this an instance of al-mustawfī.[2][12]

    فَدَارِهِمْ مَا دُمْتَ فِي دَارِهِمْ — وَأَرْضِهِمْ مَا دُمْتَ فِي أَرْضِهِمْ

    "Flatter them for as long as you dwell in their house — and please them for as long as you dwell in their land"

    Explanation
    In each hemistich, the first dārihim is a present-tense verb meaning "flatter them" or "manage them"; the second dārihim is a noun meaning "their house." The two components are identical in wording but belong to different grammatical categories, making this an instance of al-mustawfī.[5]

    يَزِيدُ الفَضْلُ بِالعَطَاءِ، وَيَزِيدُ أَكْرَمُ النَّاسِ

    "Virtue increases through giving, and Yazīd is the most generous of people"

    Explanation
    The first yazīdu is a present-tense verb meaning "increases"; the second Yazīd is a proper noun. The two components are identical in wording but belong to different grammatical categories, making this an instance of al-mustawfī.

    Type B: Incomplete Paronomasia (al-jinās ghayr al-tāmm)

    Incomplete Paronomasia occurs when the two components differ in one or more of the four properties — letter type, letter number, vowelisation, or letter order — while remaining similar enough to produce a paronomastic effect.[2][1][13]

    B1. Added-letter (al-nāqiṣ)

    The two components differ in the number of their letters, with one component having one or more additional letters compared to the other. The additional letter may occur at the beginning, middle, or end of the word.[2][1][14] This is also known as al-muṭarraf.[5]

    جَدِّي جَهْدِي

    "My endeavour is my effort"

    Explanation
    jaddī means "my endeavour" or "my seriousness"; jahdī means "my effort." The second component has an additional letter (هـ) in its middle, making this an instance of al-nāqiṣ with the additional letter in the middle.[2]

    الهَوَى مَطِيَّةُ الهَوَان

    "Desire is the mount of degradation"

    Explanation
    al-hawā means "desire"; al-hawān means "degradation." The second component has an additional letter (ن) at its end, making this an instance of al-nāqiṣ with the additional letter at the end.[2]

    إِنْ كَانَ فِرَاقُنَا مَعَ الصُّبْحِ بَدَا — لَا أَسْفَرَ بَعْدَ ذَاكَ صُبْحٌ أَبَدَا

    "If our parting appeared with the dawn — may no dawn ever break again after that"

    Explanation
    al-ṣubḥi means "the dawn"; ṣubḥun means "a dawn." The first component has an additional letter (ا) at its beginning (the definite article), making this an instance of al-nāqiṣ with the additional letter at the beginning.[5]

    يَمُدُّونَ مِنْ أَيْدٍ عَوَاصٍ عَوَاصِمَ — تَصُولُ بِأَسْيَافٍ قَوَاضٍ قَوَاضِبَ

    "They extend arms that are restraining, protecting — striking with swords that are cutting, keen-edged"

    Explanation
    ʿawāṣin means "restraining"; ʿawāṣima means "protecting." Similarly, qawāḍin means "cutting"; qawāḍiba means "keen-edged." In each pair the second component has an additional letter (م and ب respectively) at its end, making these instances of al-nāqiṣ with the additional letter at the end.[5]

    B2. Vowel-shift (al-muḥarraf)

    The two components agree in their letters and letter order but differ in their vowelisation or consonant-pointing (hayʾāt), whether through a difference in short vowels or in the presence or absence of sukūn.[2][1][4]

    جُبَّةُ البُرْدِ جُنَّةُ البَرْدِ

    "The cloak of the robe is a shield against the cold"

    Explanation
    al-burd means "the robe" or "the garment"; al-bard means "the cold." The two words share the same consonantal skeleton (ب-ر-د) and letter order but differ in the vowelisation of their first letter (ḍamma vs. fatḥa), illustrating the short vowel variant of al-muḥarraf.[2]

    قِدْر / قَدَر

    "cooking pot" / "fate"

    Explanation
    qidr means "cooking pot"; qadar means "fate" or "destiny." The two words share the same consonantal skeleton (ق-د-ر) but differ in both their vowelisation and the presence of sukūn on the second letter of the first word, illustrating the sukūn variant of al-muḥarraf.[15]

    الحِلْمُ زَيْنُ العَقْلِ، وَالحُلْمُ صُورَةٌ فِي النَّوْمِ

    "Forbearance is the ornament of the mind, and a dream is an image in sleep"

    Explanation
    al-ḥilm means "forbearance"; al-ḥulm means "dream." The two words share the same consonantal skeleton (ح-ل-م) and letter order but differ in the vowelisation of the first letter (kasra vs. ḍamma), making this an instance of al-muḥarraf.

    B3. Near-sound (al-muḍāriʿ)

    The two components differ by one letter, and the two differing letters share the same, similar, or close point of articulation (makhraj).[2][15][4][5][16] The differing letter may occur at the beginning, middle, or end of the word.[2]

    لَيْلٌ دَامِسٌ وَطَرِيقٌ طَامِسٌ

    "A pitch-dark night and a road without signs"

    Explanation
    dāmis means "pitch-dark"; ṭāmis means "without signs" or "obliterated." The two words differ only in their first letter: د and ط respectively. Both letters share a similar point of articulation as dental and emphatic dental sounds, making this an instance of al-muḍāriʿ with the differing letter at the beginning.[2]

    وَهُمْ يَنْهَوْنَ عَنْهُ وَيَنْأَوْنَ عَنْهُ

    Quran 6:26
    "And they forbid others from it and themselves keep away from it"

    Explanation
    yanhawna means "they forbid"; yanʾawna means "they keep away." The two words differ only in their third letter: هـ and ء respectively. Both letters share the same point of articulation, namely the glottis, making this an instance of al-muḍāriʿ with the differing letter in the middle.[2][1]

    الخَيْلُ مَعْقُودٌ فِي نَوَاصِيهَا الخَيْرُ إِلَى يَوْمِ القِيَامَةِ

    "Goodness is tied to the forelocks of horses until the Day of Judgement" (Hadith)

    Explanation
    al-khayl means "horses"; al-khayr means "goodness." The two words differ only in their final letter: ل and ر respectively. Both letters share a similar point of articulation as liquid consonants, making this an instance of al-muḍāriʿ with the differing letter at the end.[2]

    B4. Far-sound (al-lāḥiq)

    The two components differ by one letter, and the two differing letters have different points of articulation (makhraj).[2][15][4] As with al-muḍāriʿ, the differing letter may occur at the beginning, middle, or end of the word.[2]

    وَيْلٌ لِكُلِّ هُمَزَةٍ لُمَزَةٍ

    Quran 104:1
    "Woe to every scorner and mocker"

    Explanation
    humaza means "scorner"; lumaza means "mocker." The two words differ only in their first letter: هـ and ل respectively. These two letters have different points of articulation — هـ is a glottal sound while ل is an alveolar lateral — making this an instance of al-lāḥiq with the differing letter at the beginning.[2][15]

    وَإِنَّهُ عَلَى ذَلِكَ لَشَهِيدٌ وَإِنَّهُ لِحُبِّ الْخَيْرِ لَشَدِيدٌ

    Quran 100:7-8
    "And indeed, he is a witness to that. And indeed, he is intense in his love of wealth"

    Explanation
    shahīd means "a witness"; shadīd means "intense." The two words differ only in their second letter: هـ and د respectively. These two letters have different points of articulation — هـ is a glottal sound while د is an alveolar stop — making this an instance of al-lāḥiq with the differing letter in the middle.[2][15]

    وَإِذَا جَاءَهُمْ أَمْرٌ مِنَ الْأَمْنِ أَوِ الْخَوْفِ أَذَاعُوا بِهِ

    Quran 4:83
    "And when there comes to them a matter of security or fear, they spread it abroad"

    Explanation
    al-amr means "a matter"; al-amn means "security." The two words differ only in their final letter: ر and ن respectively. These two letters have different points of articulation — ر is an alveolar trill while ن is an alveolar nasal — making this an instance of al-lāḥiq with the differing letter at the end.[2]

    B5. Dot-shift (al-muṣaḥḥaf)

    The two components are identical in their consonantal skeleton and letter order but differ in their diacritical dots (nuqaṭ), such that if the dots were removed from one component it would be indistinguishable from the other in writing.[2][4][17]

    وُجُوهٌ يَوْمَئِذٍ نَاضِرَةٌ إِلَى رَبِّهَا نَاظِرَةٌ

    Quran 75:22-23
    "Faces that Day will be radiant, looking at their Lord"

    Explanation
    nāḍira means "radiant" or "bright"; nāẓira means "looking." The two words share an identical consonantal skeleton but differ in the dotting of their third letter: ض (with dots below) vs. ظ (with a dot above), making this an instance of al-muṣaḥḥaf.[2]

    غَرَّكَ عِزُّكَ فَصَارَ قَصَارَى ذَلِكَ ذُلُّكَ

    "Your glory deceived you, and the outcome of that is your humiliation"

    Explanation
    gharra means "deceived"; ʿizza means "glory." dhālika means "that"; dhulluka means "your humiliation." Each pair shares an identical consonantal skeleton but differs in diacritical dotting, illustrating how al-muṣaḥḥaf can operate across multiple word pairs within a single passage.[2]

    B6. Anagram (al-qalb)

    The two components consist of the same letters but in a different order, producing an anagram-like reversal.[2][4][18][19] The reversal may be total, affecting all letters,[2][18][20] or partial, affecting only some.[2][18] Where the reversal produces a text that reads identically forwards and backwards, this constitutes the special case known as al-mustawī (Palindrome).[2]

    حُسَامُهُ فَتْحٌ لِأَوْلِيَائِهِ وَحَتْفٌ لِأَعْدَائِهِ

    "His sword is a conquest for his allies and destruction for his enemies"

    Explanation
    fatḥ means "conquest" or "opening"; ḥatf means "destruction" or "death." The two words consist of exactly the same letters (ف-ت-ح / ح-ت-ف) but in reverse order, making this an instance of total al-qalb.[2][18]

    اللَّهُمَّ اسْتُرْ عَوْرَاتِنَا وَآمِنْ رَوْعَاتِنَا

    "O God, conceal our faults and calm our fears" (Hadith)

    Explanation
    ʿawrāt means "faults" or "private matters"; rawʿāt means "fears." The first three letters of each word are partially reversed (ع-و-ر / ر-و-ع), making this an instance of partial al-qalb.[2][18]

    كَنِيل — وَلِين — سَاقَ وَقَاسَ

    "Nile" / "be gentle" — "gentle" / (its reversal) — "drove" / "measured"

    Explanation
    Each pair consists of the same letters in reversed order: kanīl and lakan; walīn and its reversal; sāqa ("drove") and qāsa ("measured"). Each is an instance of total al-qalb.[5]
    Note
    Al-Hāshimī (2019) identifies a further positional variant called al-maqlūb al-mujannah (the winged reversal), in which one component appears at the beginning of a line of verse and its reversal appears at the end, as though the line has two wings.[2][21] This is a positional rather than structural variant of al-qalb and does not affect the classification of the reversal itself as total or partial.[2]

    B7. Compound (al-murakkab wa-al-mulaffaq)

    Both subtypes involve compound components, where one or both of the two components consist of more than one word. They are distinguished by whether the compounding affects one or both components.[2][4]

    B7a. Single compound (al-murakkab)

    One component is a single word while the other consists of two words which, when pronounced together, sound identical to the single-word component.[2][4][22]

    إِذَا مَلِكٌ لَمْ يَكُنْ ذَا هِبَهْ فَدَعْهُ فَدَوْلَتُهُ ذَاهِبَهْ

    "If a king has no gift to give, leave him — for his reign is departing"

    Explanation
    dhā hiba is a two-word expression meaning "having a gift"; dhāhiba is a single word meaning "departing." When the two words of the first expression are pronounced together they sound identical to the single word of the second, making this an instance of al-murakkab.[2][5][22]
    B7b. Double compound (al-mulaffaq)

    Both components consist of two words, and when each pair of words is pronounced together the two expressions sound identical to one another.[2][23]

    وَلِيتَ الحُكْمَ خَمْساً وَهْيَ خَمْسٌ لَعَمْرِي وَالصِّبَا فِي العُنْفُوَانِ — فَلَمْ تَضَعِ الأَعَادِي قَدْرَ شَانِي وَلَا قَالُوا فُلَانٌ قَدْ رَشَانِي

    "You ruled for five years while they were five — by my life, and youth was in its prime. The enemies did not diminish my standing, nor did they say: so-and-so has bribed me"

    Explanation
    qadra shānī is a two-word expression meaning "my standing"; qad rashānī is a two-word expression meaning "has bribed me." When each pair of words is pronounced together the two expressions sound identical, making this an instance of al-mulaffaq.[2][5]

    B8. Shared-root (al-ishtiqāq)

    The two components are derived from the same root but differ in their morphological form, such that their shared derivational origin is apparent.[2][1][4]

    لَا أَعْبُدُ مَا تَعْبُدُونَ وَلَا أَنْتُمْ عَابِدُونَ مَا أَعْبُدُ

    Quran 109:2-3
    "I do not worship what you worship, nor do you worship what I worship"

    Explanation
    aʿbudu is a present-tense verb meaning "I worship"; taʿbudūna is a present-tense verb meaning "you worship"; ʿābidūna is an active participle meaning "worshippers." All three forms are derived from the same root ع-ب-د, making this an instance of al-ishtiqāq.[2][1]

    بِحَوَافِرِ حُفْرٍ وَصُلْبِ صُلْبٍ وَأَشَاعِرِ شِعْرٍ وَخَلْقٍ أَخْلَق

    "With the hooves of diggers, and the hardness of a spine, and the hair of poetry, and a creation most fitting"

    Explanation
    Each pair of words in this passage — ḥawāfir/ḥufr, ṣulb/ṣulb, ashāʿir/shiʿr, khalq/akhlaq — shares a common root, illustrating how al-ishtiqāq can operate across multiple word pairs within a single passage.[2]

    Note
    Classification of shared-root derivation as paronomasia is not uniform across the rhetorical tradition. Al-Hāshimī introduces this category cautiously, stating that it has been called jinās al-ishtiqāq,[2] while Nābulsī discusses the same-root phenomenon under jinās al-ishtiqāq or al-jinās al-mushtaqq but does not himself regard it as paronomasia.[24]

    B9. Meaning-based (al-maʿnawī)

    In this subtype, one of the two components is not explicitly stated but is instead implied or indicated, such that the paronomastic relationship operates at the level of meaning rather than through the direct occurrence of two words in the text.[2][4]

    B9a. Hidden partner (al-iḍmār)

    One component is present in the text while the other is implied. The implied component is brought to mind by the stated one, and the context makes clear that the implied word is intended in a sense other than its literal meaning.[2]

    مُنَعَّمُ الجِسْمِ تَحْكِي الماءَ رِقَّتُهُ وَقَلْبُهُ قَسْوَةً يَحْكِي أَبَا أَوْسِ

    "Soft of body, his delicacy resembles water, yet his heart in its hardness resembles the father of Aws"

    Explanation
    The stated component is abī Aws — a reference to a well-known poet whose father's name was Ḥajar. The mention of the father of Aws brings to mind the name Ḥajar, which also means "stone" in Arabic. The implied word Ḥajar is not stated but is activated by the reference, and it is the word "stone" rather than the proper name that is intended, making this an instance of al-iḍmār.[2]

    B9b. Hinted partner (al-ishāra)

    One component is stated while the other is not explicitly stated but is indicated through another expression that points to it. Al-Hāshimī describes this as occurring where the poetry does not permit explicit statement of the second component,[2] while Nābulsī allows the indication to operate through a synonym, subtle indirect expression, or another revealing expression.[25]

    يَا حَمْزَةُ اسْمَحْ بِوَصْلٍ وَامْنُنْ عَلَيْنَا بِقُرْبِ — فِي ثَغْرِكَ اسْمُكَ أَضْحَى مُصَحَّفاً وَبِقَلْبِي

    "O Ḥamza, grant us union and favour us with nearness — your name in your smile has become dotted differently, and in my heart"

    Explanation
    The stated component is Ḥamza, a proper name. The poet indicates that the name, when its diacritical dots are rearranged (muṣaḥḥaf), yields khamra (wine) in the smile, and jamra (ember) in the heart. Neither khamra nor jamra is stated; both are only indicated, making this an instance of al-ishāra.[2][25]

    Different From

    • Repetition — Repetition involves the recurrence of the same word, expression, or structure with the relevant meaning retained, whereas Paronomasia depends on formal similarity or identity between components that differ in meaning. Where identical wording recurs with a change of meaning, classify the relationship as Paronomasia rather than Repetition.
    • Pun — Pun (al-tawriya) operates through a single word carrying two possible meanings, of which the near meaning is apparent while the distant meaning is intended. Complete Paronomasia instead involves two distinct lexical occurrences that are identical in form but are each used with a different meaning.
    • PALINDR: Palindrome - a special case of al-qalb in which the reversal of letters produces a text that reads meaningfully both forwards and backwards. Al-qalb is the broader category, covering all letter-order reversals whether or not they produce a palindrome.[2]

    See Also

    Notes

    • The device is called jināsāt because the letters of each component come from a single jins (genus or type), meaning that the two words are built from the same class of sounds.[7]
    • The term jināsāt is also rendered in Arabic as tajnīs and mujānasa. The form jināsāt is preferred in this encyclopedia as it is the most widely attested nominal form across the sources.[4][3]
    • Nāṣif (2012) defines the device using the term al-nutq (pronunciation) rather than lafẓ (wording), foregrounding phonetic similarity. This encyclopedia follows the majority of sources in using lafẓ.[5]
    • The two components of the device are referred to in the Arabic sources as ruknayn (the two pillars). This encyclopedia uses "components" as the English equivalent throughout.[2][1]
    • Al-Hāshimī (2019) notes that complete paronomasia (al-tāmm) is rare in classical Arabic literature and is most effective when it arises naturally from the meaning rather than through deliberate construction.[2]
    • Bettini (2011) notes that definitions and subcategory names for paronomasia vary considerably across authors and periods in the Arabic rhetorical tradition, and that the terminology used by one author may differ from or overlap with that of another.[4] Comparison of the sources used by this encyclopedia indicates that this variation can affect not only the names assigned to subtypes but also the boundaries of the mechanisms denoted by particular names.
    • When one of the two paronomastic words immediately follows the other, the construction may additionally be referred to as muzdawaj (doubled), mukarrar (repeated), or muraddad (reiterated).[7]
    • Atīq (2002) classifies compound paronomasia (jināsāt al-tarkīb) as a subtype of complete paronomasia.[7] Similarly, Nāṣif (2012) places the compound subtypes — which he terms al-mutashābih and al-mafrūq — under complete paronomasia.[5] This encyclopedia adopts al-Hāshimī’s (2019) placing of compound subtypes (al-murakkab and al-mulaffaq) under incomplete paronomasia because the similarity is distributed across multiple words rather than contained in a single word-pair.[2]

    References

    1. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Ayman Amin Abd Al-Ghani, Al-Kāfī fī al-Balāgha: Al-Bayān, wa al-Badiʿ wa al-Maʿānī (Cairo: Dār al-Tawfīqiyya lil-Turāth, 2011), 223-234.
    2. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg Aḥmad al-Hāshimī, Jawāhir al-Balāgha fī al-Maʿānī wa-al-Bayān wa-al-Badīʿ (Windsor: Hindāwī Foundation, 2019), 403-409, ISBN 9781527316386.
    3. ↑ a b c d W. P. Heinrichs, ‘Rhetorical Figures’, in Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature, ed. Julie Scott Meisami and Paul Starkey (London: Routledge, 1998), 660, ISBN 0415068088. DOI: 10.4324/9780203020425
    4. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Lidia Bettini, ‘Jinās’, in Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics Online, ed. Lutz Edzard and Rudolf Erik de Jong (Leiden: Brill, 2011).
    5. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Ḥafnī Nāṣif, Muḥammad Diyāb, Sultan Muḥammad and Muṣṭafā Ṭammām, Durūs al-Balāgha (Beirut: Dār Ibn Ḥazm, 2012), 116-118, ISBN 9786144162798.
    6. ↑ Pierre Cachia, The Arch Rhetorician: Or The Schemer’s Skimmer: A Handbook of Late Arabic Badīʻ Drawn from ʻAbd al-Ghanī an-Nābulsī’s Nafaḥāt al-Azhār ʻala Nasamāt al-Asḥār, Studies in Arabic Language and Literature 3 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998), p. 19; §16, ISBN 9783447040327.
    7. ↑ a b c d e f ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Atīq, ʿIlm al-Badīʿ (Beirut: Dār al-Nahḍa al-ʿArabiyya lil-Ṭibāʿa wa-al-Nashr wa-al-Tawzīʿ, 2002), 195-214.
    8. ↑ a b c Pierre Cachia, The Arch Rhetorician: Or The Schemer’s Skimmer: A Handbook of Late Arabic Badīʻ Drawn from ʻAbd al-Ghanī an-Nābulsī’s Nafaḥāt al-Azhār ʻala Nasamāt al-Asḥār, Studies in Arabic Language and Literature 3 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998), p. 21; §18, ISBN 9783447040327.
    9. ↑ a b Faḍl Ḥasan ʿAbbās, Al-Balāgha: Funūnuhā wa-Afnānuhā - ʿIlm al-Bayān wa-al-Badīʿ (Amman: Dār al-Furqān lil-Nashr wa-al-Tawzīʿ, 2007), 299-304.
    10. ↑ Inʿām Fawwāl ʿAkkāwī, Al-Muʿjam al-Mufaṣṣal fī ʿUlūm al-Balāgha: Al-Badīʿ wa-al-Bayān wa-al-Maʿānī (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyya, 1996), 466-526.
    11. ↑ Pierre Cachia, The Arch Rhetorician: Or The Schemer’s Skimmer: A Handbook of Late Arabic Badīʻ Drawn from ʻAbd al-Ghanī an-Nābulsī’s Nafaḥāt al-Azhār ʻala Nasamāt al-Asḥār, Studies in Arabic Language and Literature 3 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998), p. 21; §19, ISBN 9783447040327.
    12. ↑ a b Pierre Cachia, The Arch Rhetorician: Or The Schemer’s Skimmer: A Handbook of Late Arabic Badīʻ Drawn from ʻAbd al-Ghanī an-Nābulsī’s Nafaḥāt al-Azhār ʻala Nasamāt al-Asḥār, Studies in Arabic Language and Literature 3 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998), p. 21; §20, ISBN 9783447040327.
    13. ↑ Pierre Cachia, The Arch Rhetorician: Or The Schemer’s Skimmer: A Handbook of Late Arabic Badīʻ Drawn from ʻAbd al-Ghanī an-Nābulsī’s Nafaḥāt al-Azhār ʻala Nasamāt al-Asḥār, Studies in Arabic Language and Literature 3 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998), p. 21; §21, ISBN 9783447040327.
    14. ↑ Pierre Cachia, The Arch Rhetorician: Or The Schemer’s Skimmer: A Handbook of Late Arabic Badīʻ Drawn from ʻAbd al-Ghanī an-Nābulsī’s Nafaḥāt al-Azhār ʻala Nasamāt al-Asḥār, Studies in Arabic Language and Literature 3 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998), p. 28; §43, ISBN 9783447040327.
    15. ↑ a b c d e Hussein Abdul-Raof, Arabic Rhetoric: A Pragmatic Analysis (Oxford: Routledge, 2006), 261-267, ISBN 9780415386098. DOI: 10.4324/9780203965399
    16. ↑ Pierre Cachia, The Arch Rhetorician: Or The Schemer’s Skimmer: A Handbook of Late Arabic Badīʻ Drawn from ʻAbd al-Ghanī an-Nābulsī’s Nafaḥāt al-Azhār ʻala Nasamāt al-Asḥār, Studies in Arabic Language and Literature 3 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998), p. 28; §42, ISBN 9783447040327.
    17. ↑ Pierre Cachia, The Arch Rhetorician: Or The Schemer’s Skimmer: A Handbook of Late Arabic Badīʻ Drawn from ʻAbd al-Ghanī an-Nābulsī’s Nafaḥāt al-Azhār ʻala Nasamāt al-Asḥār, Studies in Arabic Language and Literature 3 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998), p. 26; §36, ISBN 9783447040327.
    18. ↑ a b c d e Inʿām Fawwāl ʿAkkāwī, Al-Muʿjam al-Mufaṣṣal fī ʿUlūm al-Balāgha: Al-Badīʿ wa-al-Bayān wa-al-Maʿānī (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyya, 1996), 487-488.
    19. ↑ Pierre Cachia, The Arch Rhetorician: Or The Schemer’s Skimmer: A Handbook of Late Arabic Badīʻ Drawn from ʻAbd al-Ghanī an-Nābulsī’s Nafaḥāt al-Azhār ʻala Nasamāt al-Asḥār, Studies in Arabic Language and Literature 3 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998), p. 26; §37, ISBN 9783447040327.
    20. ↑ Pierre Cachia, The Arch Rhetorician: Or The Schemer’s Skimmer: A Handbook of Late Arabic Badīʻ Drawn from ʻAbd al-Ghanī an-Nābulsī’s Nafaḥāt al-Azhār ʻala Nasamāt al-Asḥār, Studies in Arabic Language and Literature 3 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998), p. 27; §38, ISBN 9783447040327.
    21. ↑ Pierre Cachia, The Arch Rhetorician: Or The Schemer’s Skimmer: A Handbook of Late Arabic Badīʻ Drawn from ʻAbd al-Ghanī an-Nābulsī’s Nafaḥāt al-Azhār ʻala Nasamāt al-Asḥār, Studies in Arabic Language and Literature 3 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998), p. 27; §39, ISBN 9783447040327.
    22. ↑ a b Pierre Cachia, The Arch Rhetorician: Or The Schemer’s Skimmer: A Handbook of Late Arabic Badīʻ Drawn from ʻAbd al-Ghanī an-Nābulsī’s Nafaḥāt al-Azhār ʻala Nasamāt al-Asḥār, Studies in Arabic Language and Literature 3 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998), p. 23; §28, ISBN 9783447040327.
    23. ↑ Pierre Cachia, The Arch Rhetorician: Or The Schemer’s Skimmer: A Handbook of Late Arabic Badīʻ Drawn from ʻAbd al-Ghanī an-Nābulsī’s Nafaḥāt al-Azhār ʻala Nasamāt al-Asḥār, Studies in Arabic Language and Literature 3 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998), p. 23-24; §30, ISBN 9783447040327.
    24. ↑ Pierre Cachia, The Arch Rhetorician: Or The Schemer’s Skimmer: A Handbook of Late Arabic Badīʻ Drawn from ʻAbd al-Ghanī an-Nābulsī’s Nafaḥāt al-Azhār ʻala Nasamāt al-Asḥār, Studies in Arabic Language and Literature 3 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998), p. 30; §47, ISBN 9783447040327.
    25. ↑ a b Pierre Cachia, The Arch Rhetorician: Or The Schemer’s Skimmer: A Handbook of Late Arabic Badīʻ Drawn from ʻAbd al-Ghanī an-Nābulsī’s Nafaḥāt al-Azhār ʻala Nasamāt al-Asḥār, Studies in Arabic Language and Literature 3 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998), p. 31; §50, ISBN 9783447040327.



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